The Epic of Gilgamesh: Full Poem Summary

The Epic of Gilgamesh is the oldest known literary work, dating back nearly 4,000 years to ancient Mesopotamia, an area that corresponds to present-day Iraq and eastern Syria. Its author remains unknown, as do the reasons behind its creation and the intended audience. The story is preserved on clay tablets written in cuneiform script, an early form of writing in which scribes pressed wedge-shaped marks into wet clay using reeds.

For centuries, cuneiform remained an unreadable mystery. It wasn’t until the 1870s that George Smith, a self-taught scholar from London, deciphered the script while studying tablets in the British Museum, unveiling the Epic of Gilgamesh to the modern world.

The epic follows Gilgamesh, a powerful king of Uruk (modern-day Warka in Iraq), who is part god and part human. Known for his strength and grand achievements, including the construction of a magnificent city with innovative glazed bricks, he is also notorious for his tyranny. He abuses his power by taking newlywed brides, leading his people to seek divine intervention. In response, the gods create Enkidu, a wild man born from clay, to challenge Gilgamesh.

Enkidu initially lives among animals, covered in hair and surviving on grass. However, after a temple priestess seduces him, he undergoes a transformation into a civilized human. She introduces him to clothing, human food, and the customs of society.

Upon meeting, Gilgamesh and Enkidu engage in a fierce battle, but they prove to be equally strong. Instead of remaining enemies, they become close friends and embark on daring adventures. Together, they venture to the Cedar Forest and slay the monstrous guardian, Humbaba, defying the gods’ wishes.

Their defiance continues when the goddess Ishtar, captivated by Gilgamesh’s beauty, proposes marriage. Aware of her cruel history with lovers, Gilgamesh rejects her. Furious, Ishtar convinces her father, the sky god, to send the Bull of Heaven to punish him. However, Gilgamesh and Enkidu defeat the beast, further angering the gods. As a consequence, they decree Enkidu’s death.

Devastated by the loss of his friend, Gilgamesh embarks on a journey in search of immortality. He crosses treacherous waters to meet Utnapishtim, the only human granted eternal life after surviving a great flood by building a boat at the gods’ command. Utnapishtim reveals that immortality is beyond human reach. Even when Gilgamesh discovers a plant that can restore youth, a snake steals it before he can use it. Realizing that death is inevitable, Gilgamesh returns to Uruk, understanding that, despite his greatness, he shares the same fate as all humans.

Tablets of The Epic of Gilgamesh

The Epic of Gilgamesh is one of the oldest known literary works, recorded on a series of clay tablets in cuneiform script. These tablets, written in the Akkadian language, provide the earliest complete version of the epic and have been instrumental in understanding Mesopotamian culture, mythology, and early storytelling techniques.

1. Discovery and Origin of the Tablets

The most complete version of the epic was found in the ruins of the Library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh (modern-day Mosul, Iraq). Ashurbanipal was a 7th-century BCE Assyrian king who assembled a vast collection of texts on various subjects, including mythology, history, and science.

Though the Nineveh tablets are the most complete, earlier versions of the epic were discovered in Babylon, Assur, and Hattusa (present-day Turkey). Some of these older fragments date back to 2100 BCE and are written in Sumerian, suggesting that the story evolved over centuries. The Akkadian version, which is considered the most authoritative, was composed around 1300–1000 BCE and is attributed to a Babylonian scribe named Sîn-lēqi-unninni.

2. The Structure of the Tablets

The standard Akkadian version of The Epic of Gilgamesh is divided into twelve tablets, each containing different parts of the story:

Tablet I: The Tyranny of Gilgamesh and the Creation of Enkidu

1. Introduces Gilgamesh, the powerful king of Uruk, who is part divine and part human.
2. Describes his oppression of the people, including seizing brides on their wedding night.
3. The gods create Enkidu, a wild man, to challenge Gilgamesh and balance his power.
4. Enkidu lives with animals until a temple priestess seduces him, leading to his transformation into a human.

Tablet II: The Friendship of Gilgamesh and Enkidu

1. Enkidu travels to Uruk and fights Gilgamesh.
2. They recognize each other as equals, ending their conflict and becoming close friends.
3. They decide to embark on an adventure to kill Humbaba, the guardian of the Cedar Forest.

Tablet III: Preparations for the Journey

1. The city elders and Gilgamesh’s mother, Ninsun, warn him about the dangers of the journey.
2. Ninsun prays to the sun god Shamash for protection.

Tablet IV: The Journey to the Cedar Forest

Gilgamesh and Enkidu travel for several days, having dreams that foretell their fate.

Tablet V: The Battle with Humbaba

1. Gilgamesh and Enkidu reach the Cedar Forest and fight Humbaba.
2. With the help of Shamash, they defeat and kill him.
3. This act angers the gods, as Humbaba was their appointed guardian of the forest.

Tablet VI: Ishtar’s Proposal and the Bull of Heaven

1. The goddess Ishtar is captivated by Gilgamesh’s beauty and proposes marriage.
2. Aware of her past betrayals, Gilgamesh refuses, insulting her in the process.
3. Enraged, Ishtar asks her father, Anu, to send the Bull of Heaven to punish Gilgamesh.
4. Gilgamesh and Enkidu defeat and kill the bull.

Tablet VII: The Death of Enkidu

1. The gods are furious and decree that one of the heroes must die as punishment.
2. Enkidu falls ill and experiences nightmares about the afterlife.
3. He curses the priestess who seduced him but later retracts his curse, accepting his fate.
4. Enkidu dies, and Gilgamesh mourns him deeply.

Tablet VIII: Gilgamesh’s Grief

Gilgamesh laments Enkidu’s death, wandering the city and refusing to accept mortality.

Tablet IX: The Quest for Immortality Begins

1. Fearing his own death, Gilgamesh sets out to find Utnapishtim, the only human granted eternal life.
2. He travels through the mountains and meets supernatural creatures guarding the path.

Tablet X: Meeting Siduri and the Journey Across the Waters of Death

1. Gilgamesh meets Siduri, a divine barmaid who warns him that immortality is impossible.
2. He convinces the boatman Urshanabi to take him across the Waters of Death to Utnapishtim.

Tablet XI: The Story of the Great Flood

1. Gilgamesh meets Utnapishtim, who recounts how the gods sent a great flood to destroy humanity.
2. Utnapishtim was warned by the god Ea to build a boat and save his family and animals.
3. As a reward for his survival, the gods granted him and his wife immortality.
4. Utnapishtim challenges Gilgamesh to stay awake for seven days to prove he deserves eternal life, but he fails.
5. However, Utnapishtim tells him about a plant that restores youth.
6. Gilgamesh finds the plant but loses it to a snake, which sheds its skin and becomes young again.

Tablet XII: The Return to Uruk and Acceptance of Mortality

1. Gilgamesh returns to Uruk, realizing that his true legacy lies in his accomplishments and the city he built.
2. The epic ends with a reflection on human mortality and the idea that no one can escape death.

3. Script and Language

1. The epic was written in Akkadian using cuneiform script.
2. Older Sumerian versions exist as separate poems that inspired the Akkadian version.
3. Cuneiform script consists of wedge-shaped markings pressed into clay with a stylus.

4. Preservation and Decipherment

1. The tablets were lost for centuries until rediscovered in the 19th century.
2. George Smith, a British scholar, deciphered the tablets in 1872, identifying the first known account of a flood myth similar to the biblical Noah’s Ark.
3. Many tablets are fragmented, and scholars have reconstructed missing sections by comparing versions from different sites.

5. Significance of the Tablets

1. The epic is considered the earliest known great work of literature.
2. It explores universal themes such as friendship, heroism, the search for meaning, and the inevitability of death.
3. The flood narrative closely resembles later religious texts, showing the influence of Mesopotamian mythology.
4. The tablets provide insight into Mesopotamian beliefs, writing systems, and literary traditions.

 Characters in The Epic of Gilgamesh:

1. Gilgamesh: The king of Uruk, two-thirds divine and one-third human. He begins as a proud, oppressive, and reckless ruler who abuses his power. His transformation throughout the epic is central to the story, as he seeks wisdom, meaning, and ultimately comes to terms with the inevitability of death. Gilgamesh’s journey is both physical and spiritual, marked by his pursuit of immortality and his evolving understanding of human limitations.

2. Enkidu: A wild man created by the gods to be Gilgamesh’s equal and to curb his excesses. Enkidu starts in harmony with nature, living in the wild, but after his encounter with Shamhat, he is introduced to human civilization.

3. Shamhat: A temple prostitute who plays a key role in civilizing Enkidu. She seduces him, introducing him to human pleasures, which lead to his gradual integration into society.

4. Utnapishtim: A wise, immortal man who survived a great flood sent by the gods to destroy humanity, which is similar to the biblical story of Noah. He and his wife were granted eternal life as a reward for surviving the flood.

5. Ishtar: The goddess of love, beauty, and war. Ishtar proposes marriage to Gilgamesh, but he rejects her, citing her previous failures with lovers. In anger, she sends the Bull of Heaven to punish Gilgamesh and Uruk.

6. Anu: The chief god of the heavens, father of the gods, and the father of Ishtar. Anu initially creates Enkidu in response to the pleas of the people of Uruk who are suffering under Gilgamesh’s rule. He later plays a part in sending the Bull of Heaven to punish Gilgamesh.

7. Ninsun: Gilgamesh’s mother, a wise and divine figure. She is a goddess and provides her son with counsel and guidance throughout his journey. Ninsun’s wisdom helps Gilgamesh when he faces challenges, and she plays a nurturing role in his life.

8. Siduri: A tavern keeper and goddess of wine. Siduri meets Gilgamesh during his journey in search of immortality. She advises him to live life to the fullest, enjoy the simple pleasures, and accept that death is a part of the human condition.

9. Humbaba: The monstrous guardian of the Cedar Forest, sent by the god Enlil to protect the sacred trees. Gilgamesh and Enkidu defeat Humbaba in a violent battle, an act that solidifies their heroic status but also sets in motion the anger of the gods, eventually leading to Enkidu’s death.

10. Enlil: The god of wind, earth, and storms. He is one of the most powerful gods in the epic. Enlil is angry with Gilgamesh and Enkidu for killing Humbaba, the guardian of the Cedar Forest, and for disturbing the natural order. Enlil’s anger contributes to the gods’ decision to punish Enkidu with death.

11. Shamash: The sun god and the god of justice. Shamash is a key ally of Gilgamesh and Enkidu, aiding them in their struggles. Shamash provides divine assistance during their battle with Humbaba and later offers guidance and support in their quest.

12. The Scorpion People: Mythical creatures who guard the gates to the mountain of Mashu, where the sun sets. They warn Gilgamesh of the dangers ahead but ultimately allow him to pass on his journey to find Utnapishtim.

13. The Bull of Heaven: A divine creature sent by Ishtar to punish Gilgamesh after he rejects her marriage proposal. The bull wreaks havoc on Uruk, but Gilgamesh and Enkidu defeat it, which leads to further divine retribution and Enkidu’s eventual death.

14. The Gods (General): Various gods play crucial roles in the narrative, guiding, punishing, and interacting with the characters. They represent forces of nature, fate, and destiny, influencing the lives of the epic’s heroes, often in capricious and unpredictable ways.

The Epic of Gilgamesh and its Biblical Connections

The Epic of Gilgamesh shares notable similarities with several stories in the Hebrew Bible, particularly in themes, plot structures, and characters. Scholars have identified parallels with the Garden of Eden, the wisdom literature of Ecclesiastes, and the Genesis flood narrative.

Garden of Eden

The relationship between the characters of Enkidu and Shamhat in Gilgamesh and Adam and Eve in Genesis has been widely discussed. Both stories depict a man created from the earth who initially dwells in a natural state. He then encounters a woman who introduces him to a new way of life. In both cases, the man eats food offered by the woman, becomes aware of his nakedness, and is forced to leave his original home. The presence of a serpent in Gilgamesh, which steals a plant of immortality from the hero, further echoes the Genesis account. However, one key difference is Enkidu’s changing perspective—initially regretting his seduction but later blessing Shamhat—whereas Adam’s disobedience results in divine punishment and exile.

Wisdom in Ecclesiastes

Many scholars believe that Ecclesiastes draws from the wisdom themes present in The Epic of Gilgamesh. The words of Siduri, a divine tavern-keeper in Gilgamesh, closely resemble passages in Ecclesiastes, encouraging people to embrace the joys of life. Additionally, the proverb about the strength of a “triple-stranded rope” appears in both texts, though its exact source remains debated.

The Flood Narrative

The flood story in Genesis closely mirrors the one found in The Epic of Gilgamesh. According to Andrew George, the events of the biblical flood follow the Mesopotamian account step by step, indicating a shared origin. Rabbinic scholar Robert Wexler suggests that both Genesis and Gilgamesh may have drawn from an older Mesopotamian flood tradition. The heroes of these respective stories—Noah in the Bible, Utnapishtim in Gilgamesh, and Ziusudra in Sumerian mythology—demonstrate a common ancient narrative of divine destruction and survival.

Other Biblical Parallels

Additional connections between Gilgamesh and the Bible have been proposed. The story of Nebuchadnezzar’s madness in the Book of Daniel has been linked to Enkidu’s transformation, with scholars suggesting that the biblical author may have drawn from Gilgamesh to mock the Babylonian king. Similarly, the Sumerian goddess Ninti—who was created from Enki’s rib—bears resemblance to the biblical account of Eve’s creation from Adam’s rib. Furthermore, Esther J. Hamori has pointed out similarities between the wrestling match of Gilgamesh and Enkidu and the struggle between Jacob and the divine being in Genesis.

These parallels indicate that the stories of Gilgamesh and the Hebrew Bible share common cultural influences, with some scholars believing that biblical writers adapted elements from earlier Mesopotamian traditions.

The Epic of Gilgamesh and its Connections with Hindu Epics

The Epic of Gilgamesh shares several thematic and narrative parallels with the ancient Hindu epics, particularly the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. While these texts belong to different cultures, their exploration of universal themes such as heroism, the search for immortality, divine intervention, and the human condition reveal intriguing similarities. Here are some key connections between the Epic of Gilgamesh and Hindu epics:

The Heroic Journey and Divine Intervention

In the Epic of Gilgamesh, the protagonist, Gilgamesh, is a king who embarks on a quest for immortality after the death of his beloved friend, Enkidu. This journey mirrors the hero’s journey found in the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. In both Hindu epics, the heroes—Arjuna and Rama—are called upon to fulfill their destinies, often aided by divine beings or interventions.

Gilgamesh and Rama: Both Gilgamesh and Rama are portrayed as idealized heroes—Gilgamesh as a powerful king and warrior, and Rama as the incarnation of the god Vishnu. Both are shown as seeking a higher purpose and dealing with the loss of loved ones (Enkidu and Sita, respectively). Their stories reflect the struggle of reconciling human frailty with divine power.

Gilgamesh and Arjuna: Like Arjuna, Gilgamesh wrestles with moral dilemmas during his journey. Arjuna is torn about fighting in the Kurukshetra war in the Mahabharata, while Gilgamesh seeks to understand the meaning of life and death after the loss of Enkidu. Both figures experience a transformative change, guided by divine wisdom—Arjuna through the Bhagavad Gita and Gilgamesh through encounters with gods and sages.

 The Search for Immortality

A key theme in the Epic of Gilgamesh is the quest for immortality, which Gilgamesh pursues after Enkidu’s death. This echoes the quest for eternal life and spiritual liberation found in Hindu epics, though the approaches differ in context.

Gilgamesh and the Mahabharata: In the Mahabharata, characters like the Pandavas undergo trials to achieve immortality or spiritual elevation, such as the journey to the Himalayas in the Swargarohanika Parva, which signifies the search for liberation (moksha). Similarly, Gilgamesh’s journey, particularly his encounter with Utnapishtim, the immortal flood survivor, reflects the pursuit of eternal life. Both texts show that immortality cannot be attained easily and is often linked to divine will rather than human effort.

Gilgamesh and the Ramayana: The theme of immortality also resonates with the Ramayana, where divine beings such as Ravana are granted prolonged life or power but ultimately face death due to their pride or transgressions. Gilgamesh’s realization that immortality is elusive parallels the Hindu view that attachment to worldly existence leads to suffering and that spiritual wisdom is the true key to liberation.

The Role of Friendship and Loss

Enkidu’s death in the Epic of Gilgamesh serves as a pivotal moment, leading Gilgamesh to contemplate his own mortality. This theme of profound friendship and loss echoes the relationships seen in the Mahabharata and Ramayana.

Gilgamesh and Krishna: Similar to the bond between Gilgamesh and Enkidu, the relationship between Krishna and Arjuna in the Mahabharata represents a deep connection that transcends mere friendship, where Krishna serves as both a charioteer and divine guide. Though Krishna does not die in the way Enkidu does, Arjuna’s sorrow and inner conflict in battle mirror Gilgamesh’s grief over Enkidu’s death, as both heroes struggle with the meaning of life and the loss of a companion.

Gilgamesh and Lakshmana: The sibling bond between Gilgamesh and Enkidu can be compared to that of Rama and Lakshmana in the Ramayana. Both pairs share a profound sense of loyalty, sacrifice, and mutual dependence. The eventual loss of Enkidu mirrors the emotional devastation Rama experiences when separated from Lakshmana during the exile.

Divine Punishment and Wisdom

In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh’s quest for immortality is often thwarted by the gods, who guide him toward wisdom and self-acceptance. This is seen in the teachings Gilgamesh receives from Utnapishtim, the flood survivor, who shares insights into the nature of life and death. Similarly, in the Mahabharata and Ramayana, divine beings offer guidance and counsel to the heroes, teaching them lessons about life, duty, and the impermanence of existence.

Gilgamesh and the Bhagavad Gita: The advice Gilgamesh receives from Utnapishtim about accepting mortality parallels the teachings found in the Bhagavad Gita, where Krishna instructs Arjuna to fulfill his duty without attachment to the fruits of his actions. Both texts emphasize the importance of wisdom and accepting the transient nature of life.

Flood Narratives

The flood myth in the Epic of Gilgamesh has striking similarities to the flood story found in the Hindu tradition. In the Mahabharata, the story of Manu and the great flood parallels the tale of Utnapishtim in Gilgamesh. Both characters are warned by a divine being about an impending flood and are instructed to build a boat to save themselves and the seeds of all living creatures.

Utnapishtim and Manu: Both Utnapishtim and Manu are chosen by the gods to survive a global deluge, underscoring the idea of divine preservation. This flood myth in the Epic of Gilgamesh finds a parallel in Hindu mythology, where Manu is the ancestor of all humans, much like Utnapishtim.

The Epic of Gilgamesh shares several thematic and narrative connections with Hindu epics like the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. These common threads—heroic journeys, quests for immortality, divine intervention, and lessons on life and death—reflect universal human concerns and illustrate the ways in which different cultures have explored similar questions about existence, morality, and the divine. While the specifics of the stories differ, the underlying messages of wisdom, humility, and acceptance of mortality transcend cultural boundaries.

Gilgamesh’s character sketch

Gilgamesh, the central figure in The Epic of Gilgamesh, is portrayed as a complex and multifaceted character. He is the king of Uruk, a city that he rules with an iron fist. Two-thirds divine and one-third human, Gilgamesh possesses extraordinary strength and abilities. However, his immense power and superiority initially lead him to abuse his position, causing suffering among his people. His arrogance and excessive pride set the stage for his character’s evolution throughout the epic.

At the beginning of the story, Gilgamesh is a young and impulsive ruler. He uses his strength to oppress his subjects, particularly in his relationships with women and his subjects’ labor. This behavior disturbs the people of Uruk, who pray to the gods for a solution. In response, the gods create Enkidu, a wild man, to challenge Gilgamesh and curb his excesses. When Gilgamesh meets Enkidu, the two engage in a fierce battle, but the confrontation ends in mutual respect, leading to a deep and transformative friendship. Enkidu becomes Gilgamesh’s equal and companion, and their bond plays a crucial role in shaping Gilgamesh’s character.

Through his friendship with Enkidu, Gilgamesh begins to experience emotional depth, understanding, and self-awareness. Together, they embark on heroic adventures, including the defeat of Humbaba, the guardian of the Cedar Forest, and the killing of the Bull of Heaven. These actions, while marking them as great heroes, also draw the ire of the gods, resulting in Enkidu’s death. The loss of his close friend marks a pivotal moment in Gilgamesh’s journey, forcing him to confront his own mortality. It is in his grief and despair that the true nature of Gilgamesh’s character unfolds. His quest for immortality becomes a central theme as he seeks answers to the question of life and death.

Throughout his journey, Gilgamesh grows from a reckless and self-centered ruler to a more reflective and humble figure. He learns that immortality is unattainable for humans, and the only way to achieve lasting significance is through the legacy one leaves behind. By the end of the epic, Gilgamesh returns to Uruk, transformed and wiser, having accepted that the key to immortality lies in the deeds one accomplishes and the memories one creates. His character is one of growth, transformation, and the universal search for meaning.

Enkidu ‘s character sketch

Enkidu, a central figure in The Epic of Gilgamesh, is introduced as a wild man created by the gods to balance Gilgamesh’s arrogance and excessive power. He is born in the steppe, living in harmony with nature, and is described as a force of primal vitality. Unlike Gilgamesh, who is deeply embedded in human civilization, Enkidu represents the untamed, natural world. His initial existence is free from human societal norms, and he lives as an animal-like creature, unaware of the ways of humanity.

Enkidu’s transformation begins when he encounters Shamhat, a temple prostitute, who introduces him to human pleasures such as food, drink, and love. Shamhat’s influence gradually civilizes him, and his body becomes humanized through their interaction. This act of seduction is symbolic of the broader theme of civilization versus nature, as Enkidu moves from the wild into the human world. Through Shamhat, Enkidu gains awareness of human customs and desires, and his former wildness fades as he begins to take on more human qualities, including complex emotions.

Once integrated into society, Enkidu becomes aware of the dangers and responsibilities of human life, which marks a key shift in his character. His bond with Gilgamesh deepens as they embark on heroic quests together. Enkidu is instrumental in tempering Gilgamesh’s arrogance, bringing balance to his character. Together, they defeat the monstrous Humbaba and slay the Bull of Heaven, which are acts of great courage and strength. However, their actions anger the gods, and Enkidu is ultimately punished by death. His death is a turning point in the epic, as it forces Gilgamesh to confront his own mortality and begin his quest for immortality.

Enkidu’s death highlights his role as a catalyst for Gilgamesh’s personal growth. He symbolizes the transient nature of life, representing both the innocence of the natural world and the harsh realities of human existence. Despite his relatively short life, Enkidu’s presence profoundly shapes the epic’s themes of friendship, fate, and the search for meaning, making him one of the most significant characters in the story.

Shamhat’s character sketch

Shamhat, a key character in The Epic of Gilgamesh, is a temple prostitute who plays a pivotal role in the transformation of Enkidu from a wild, untamed man into a civilized human being. She is depicted as both a sexual and spiritual figure, representing the connection between the natural world and human civilization. Shamhat’s character embodies the influence of culture and human society, acting as a bridge between Enkidu’s primal existence and the structured world of humans.

When Enkidu first emerges from the wilderness, he is disconnected from human customs and unaware of the pleasures of civilization. The gods, in their effort to tame him, send Shamhat to seduce Enkidu. Through her, Enkidu is introduced to human desires, including food, drink, and, most notably, love. Shamhat’s seduction is not merely physical; it represents a deeper cultural and spiritual initiation into human society. Her role is crucial in making Enkidu aware of the world of human emotions, relationships, and norms, which ultimately leads to his assimilation into society.

After their encounter, Enkidu becomes less wild and more in tune with the ways of human life. He loses his previous connection to nature, which is symbolized by his physical transformation and his growing awareness of human pleasures. Shamhat’s actions set Enkidu on a new path, allowing him to form a strong bond with Gilgamesh and participate in heroic deeds. Her influence thus marks a turning point in the story, as she helps Enkidu shift from his natural, animalistic state to one where he embraces human civilization.

Shamhat’s role is both practical and symbolic. She represents the power of love and human interaction in shaping identity, and through her, Enkidu begins his journey of self-awareness and emotional growth.

Utnapishtim’s character

Utnapishtim is a wise and revered character in The Epic of Gilgamesh, known for his survival of a great flood that mirrors the biblical story of Noah. He is portrayed as an immortal figure, having been granted eternal life by the gods as a reward for his role in preserving life during the flood. Utnapishtim’s character serves as a symbol of wisdom and the elusive nature of immortality. He resides in a distant, divine realm, far removed from the mortal world, which highlights his unique status among the gods and humans.

Utnapishtim’s story is one of both survival and divine favor. When the gods decided to flood the earth to destroy humankind, Utnapishtim was forewarned by the god Ea and instructed to build a boat to save himself, his family, and the animals. After the floodwaters receded, Utnapishtim and his wife were granted immortality by the gods for their obedience and preservation of life. This divine gift sets him apart from all other humans, making him a figure of great interest to Gilgamesh, who embarks on a quest to find him and learn the secret to immortality.

When Gilgamesh meets Utnapishtim, he learns that immortality is beyond human reach. Utnapishtim shares his story and explains that the gods’ decision to grant him eternal life was a rare exception. Despite Gilgamesh’s plea for the same gift, Utnapishtim emphasizes that death is an inevitable part of the human condition. His wisdom, though comforting, also serves as a harsh lesson for Gilgamesh, who must accept the transient nature of life. Through Utnapishtim, the epic explores themes of fate, mortality, and the limits of human aspirations. Utnapishtim’s character is a reminder that immortality, while a tantalizing pursuit, is ultimately reserved for the gods.

Ishtar’s character

Ishtar is a prominent and complex character in The Epic of Gilgamesh, portrayed as the goddess of love, beauty, fertility, and war. She is one of the most powerful deities in the Mesopotamian pantheon, embodying both the nurturing and destructive aspects of life. As a goddess, Ishtar is often seen as capricious, embodying the unpredictability of love and the fierceness of warfare. She is a figure who moves between these extremes, representing both creation and destruction.

In the epic, Ishtar’s role is marked by her passionate desire for Gilgamesh, whom she proposes to marry. However, when Gilgamesh rejects her advances, citing her history of mistreating her lovers, Ishtar becomes furious. In retaliation, she seeks vengeance by sending the Bull of Heaven to wreak havoc on Uruk. This act sets in motion the events that lead to Enkidu’s death, marking a significant turning point in the story.

Ishtar’s character reflects the dual nature of power, particularly feminine power, in the ancient world—both revered and feared. Her anger and actions demonstrate her inability to control her emotions, while her role as a goddess of love highlights the complexity of human relationships. Through Ishtar, the epic explores the themes of love, vengeance, and the consequences of defying the gods.

MCQs 

1. Who is Gilgamesh’s father?
a) Enlil
b) Lugalbanda
c) Anu
d) Utnapishtim
Answer: b) Lugalbanda

2. How many parts of Gilgamesh are divine?
a) One-third
b) Two-thirds
c) Half
d) All
Answer: b) Two-thirds

3. Who was created by the gods to be Gilgamesh’s equal?
a) Shamhat
b) Enkidu
c) Humbaba
d) Utnapishtim
Answer: b) Enkidu

4. What is the name of the goddess who tries to seduce Gilgamesh?
a) Ishtar
b) Shamhat
c) Siduri
d) Ninsun
Answer: a) Ishtar

5. Who helps Enkidu become civilized?
a) Gilgamesh
b) Shamhat
c) Utnapishtim
d) Siduri
Answer: b) Shamhat

6. What is the name of the monster Gilgamesh and Enkidu defeat in the Cedar Forest?
a) Humbaba
b) Bull of Heaven
c) Ishtar
d) Scorpion People
Answer: a) Humbaba

7. Who sends the Bull of Heaven to punish Gilgamesh?
a) Shamash
b) Enlil
c) Ishtar
d) Utnapishtim
Answer: c) Ishtar

8. Who dies as a result of the Bull of Heaven’s attack?
a) Gilgamesh
b) Shamhat
c) Enkidu
d) Humbaba
Answer: c) Enkidu

9. Where does Gilgamesh go to seek immortality?
a) Cedar Forest
b) The Underworld
c) The Mountains of Mashu
d) Uruk
Answer: c) The Mountains of Mashu

10. Who grants immortality to Utnapishtim?
a) Enlil
b) Ea
c) Anu
d) Ishtar
Answer: b) Ea

11. What does Utnapishtim teach Gilgamesh?
a) How to defeat Humbaba
b) The secret of immortality
c) How to rule Uruk
d) The meaning of life
Answer: b) The secret of immortality

12. What does Gilgamesh seek to learn from Utnapishtim?
a) How to become a better king
b) The secret to immortality
c) How to defeat Ishtar
d) The story of the flood
Answer: b) The secret to immortality

13. How does Enkidu die?
a) He is killed by the Bull of Heaven
b) He is cursed by Shamhat
c) The gods decree his death
d) He dies in battle
Answer: c) The gods decree his death

14. What does Gilgamesh do after Enkidu’s death?
a) Rules Uruk more harshly
b) Goes on a journey to find immortality
c) Begins a war with the gods
d) Becomes a priest
Answer: b) Goes on a journey to find immortality

15. What is the name of the tavern keeper who advises Gilgamesh?
a) Shamhat
b) Siduri
c) Ishtar
d) Ninsun
Answer: b) Siduri

16. What is the key lesson Gilgamesh learns from Utnapishtim?
a) To be humble
b) That immortality is for the gods
c) To rule wisely
d) To cherish his friendships
Answer: b) That immortality is for the gods

17. What happens to Gilgamesh after his journey?
a) He finds the elixir of life
b) He learns to accept death
c) He conquers new lands
d) He becomes immortal
Answer: b) He learns to accept death

18. Which goddess tries to seduce Gilgamesh and is rejected?
a) Ishtar
b) Shamhat
c) Ninsun
d) Siduri
Answer: a) Ishtar

19. Who is Gilgamesh’s mother?
a) Shamhat
b) Ninsun
c) Ishtar
d) Siduri
Answer: b) Ninsun

20. Who gives Gilgamesh advice on how to live life?
a) Shamhat
b) Siduri
c) Enkidu
d) Utnapishtim
Answer: b) Siduri

21. Which god creates Enkidu?
a) Enlil
b) Ea
c) Anu
d) Shamash
Answer: a) Enlil

22. What gift does Utnapishtim offer to Gilgamesh that symbolizes the passing of time?
a) A magical flower
b) The secret of immortality
c) A boat
d) A story of the flood
Answer: a) A magical flower

23. What is the name of the hero’s city in The Epic of Gilgamesh?
a) Nippur
b) Babylon
c) Uruk
d) Nineveh
Answer: c) Uruk

24. Which of the following best describes Enkidu’s character at the beginning of the epic?
a) A wise king
b) A wild man of the steppe
c) A priest
d) A farmer
Answer: b) A wild man of the steppe

25. What is Gilgamesh’s ultimate realization at the end of the epic?
a) He can never be defeated
b) Immortality is only for the gods
c) Friendship is the key to happiness
d) He must rule Uruk forever
Answer: b) Immortality is only for the gods

26. In what century did the Epic of Gilgamesh originate?
a) 3rd century BCE
b) 1st century CE
c) 18th century BCE
d) 21st century CE
Answer: c) 18th century BCE